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Women,
Unmarked Police Cars
and Traffic Stops
Unmarked Police Cars
and Traffic Stops
It's not an uncommon sight to see police
officers using unmarked police cars to stop
people for committing traffic violations. State
Police and Highway Patrol agencies sometimes
officers using unmarked police cars to stop
people for committing traffic violations. State
Police and Highway Patrol agencies sometimes
even use car models not normally associated with unmarked police cars.
There's no common standard used when it comes to the number or placement
of emergency signal lighting on these cars. For instance, one may employ a
single blue flashing strobe light in the windshield while another will be lit up
like a Christmas tree with red, blue, or a combination of red and blue lights
mounted all over the place. White strobe lights within the headlights may be
flashing along with the rest of the light show.
From time to time you'll hear or read about instances where motorists are
being stopped by a man impersonating a police officer. Women are most often
the victims of these police impersonators for obvious reasons. First, the police
impersonator believes that a woman, rightly or wrongly, will be more
submissive to his pretended authority, and second, and more ominously, the
impersonator's ultimate goal may be his intent to commit a sexual assault.
The police impersonator has no problem making his car look like an unmarked
police car. The emergency lights shown to the left are readily available to
anyone. Even the roof bar lights can be purchased; however, the cost, at over a
thousand dollars is prohibitive, and it would be too easily noticed by a real police
officer. In contrast, the rotary flashing light, which can be mounted on the
car's roof or dash with easy placement and removal, is a twenty dollar item.
There's no common standard used when it comes to the number or placement
of emergency signal lighting on these cars. For instance, one may employ a
single blue flashing strobe light in the windshield while another will be lit up
like a Christmas tree with red, blue, or a combination of red and blue lights
mounted all over the place. White strobe lights within the headlights may be
flashing along with the rest of the light show.
From time to time you'll hear or read about instances where motorists are
being stopped by a man impersonating a police officer. Women are most often
the victims of these police impersonators for obvious reasons. First, the police
impersonator believes that a woman, rightly or wrongly, will be more
submissive to his pretended authority, and second, and more ominously, the
impersonator's ultimate goal may be his intent to commit a sexual assault.
The police impersonator has no problem making his car look like an unmarked
police car. The emergency lights shown to the left are readily available to
anyone. Even the roof bar lights can be purchased; however, the cost, at over a
thousand dollars is prohibitive, and it would be too easily noticed by a real police
officer. In contrast, the rotary flashing light, which can be mounted on the
car's roof or dash with easy placement and removal, is a twenty dollar item.
Some police departments discourage their officers from stopping motorists using unmarked cars even when the
officer is in uniform. You'll also find that some states do not require a motorist to present his or her driver's
license to a police officer not in uniform in the context of a traffic stop. Police departments used to be very
careful at regulating the use of unmarked cars and officers not in uniform; however, times do change. In some
police departments, you'll see plainclothes officers in unmarked cars running around all over the place and
stopping cars by flashing lights...and badges.
| Police Department Policies Regarding the Use of Unmarked Police Cars |
A high ranking police commander was
driving home from work when a female
driver cut in front of him nearly causing a
collision. How many times has this
happened to you? While it's an
aggravating experience, the smart thing to
do is congratulate yourself on your
alertness, and continue on your way.
This commander was no youngster, and he
should have known better than to do what
he was about to do. While he was neatly
dressed in coat and tie, he was not in
uniform. His unmarked Crown Victoria
was equipped with an array of red and blue
emergency lights, and he, stupidly, used
them.
While not being in uniform was bad
enough, he was no longer physically within
his police jurisdiction. The female driver
immediately heeded the commander's
signals to stop. Not only was she good at
cutting off other drivers, she exhibited her
habit of stopping short resulting in the
commander's car striking the rear of the
her car. While the collision was not
severe, this was just the beginning of the
commander's problems.
I have no idea what was in this cop's mind
when he stopped this woman. As a
commander of his rank, he had no citation
book assigned to him. Had he at least
been in his jurisdiction, he could have
called for a police officer to issue a citation
listing the commander as a witness...
provided he hadn't hit her car.
But, that wasn't how things were, and this
police officer rapidly went from enforcer to
violator. The woman was no shrinking
violet, and she demanded to see the
commander's driver's license and
registration. While the commander did
identify himself, he -- unbelievably --
refused to present his driver's license and
vehicle registration to the woman.
This was Traffic 101. Whenever you're
involved in a traffic accident, no matter
how minor, each driver must exchange
license and registration documents for
verification and information exchange.
Anyway...this encounter didn't go well, and
the commander ended up leaving the scene
without properly exchanging information.
The woman promptly called police. The
police investigation ultimately concluded
with the commander being issued a citation
for leaving the scene of an accident...hit
and run!
The facts were indisputable, and the
commander was guilty. The citation was
bad enough, but after the story hit the
news, the embarrassment to the
commander, and his department, was far
worse.
driving home from work when a female
driver cut in front of him nearly causing a
collision. How many times has this
happened to you? While it's an
aggravating experience, the smart thing to
do is congratulate yourself on your
alertness, and continue on your way.
This commander was no youngster, and he
should have known better than to do what
he was about to do. While he was neatly
dressed in coat and tie, he was not in
uniform. His unmarked Crown Victoria
was equipped with an array of red and blue
emergency lights, and he, stupidly, used
them.
While not being in uniform was bad
enough, he was no longer physically within
his police jurisdiction. The female driver
immediately heeded the commander's
signals to stop. Not only was she good at
cutting off other drivers, she exhibited her
habit of stopping short resulting in the
commander's car striking the rear of the
her car. While the collision was not
severe, this was just the beginning of the
commander's problems.
I have no idea what was in this cop's mind
when he stopped this woman. As a
commander of his rank, he had no citation
book assigned to him. Had he at least
been in his jurisdiction, he could have
called for a police officer to issue a citation
listing the commander as a witness...
provided he hadn't hit her car.
But, that wasn't how things were, and this
police officer rapidly went from enforcer to
violator. The woman was no shrinking
violet, and she demanded to see the
commander's driver's license and
registration. While the commander did
identify himself, he -- unbelievably --
refused to present his driver's license and
vehicle registration to the woman.
This was Traffic 101. Whenever you're
involved in a traffic accident, no matter
how minor, each driver must exchange
license and registration documents for
verification and information exchange.
Anyway...this encounter didn't go well, and
the commander ended up leaving the scene
without properly exchanging information.
The woman promptly called police. The
police investigation ultimately concluded
with the commander being issued a citation
for leaving the scene of an accident...hit
and run!
The facts were indisputable, and the
commander was guilty. The citation was
bad enough, but after the story hit the
news, the embarrassment to the
commander, and his department, was far
worse.
| You Can't Make Up this Stuff! |
| You're a Woman...You're Alone, and You're Signaled to Stop by an Unmarked Police Car |
If I were a woman driving alone, particularly after dark,
and I was signaled to stop by an unmarked police car, I
think I might have some concerns beside the possibility
of receiving a traffic citation. I know that many woman
do, because I've heard women voice their concerns
regarding safety when it's not immediately obvious that
the signaling car is a police car.
While the probability of you being stopped by a harmless
"wanna be cop", or someone much worse, is not that
great, your concern is still valid. Your personal safety
should always be your paramount concern. If the time
ever comes when you're signaled to stop by an unmarked
police car, and your instincts tell you something isn't
right, there are actions you can take short of
immediately stopping.
Let's look at some examples. You're driving on a remote
stretch of highway when you notice a set of headlights
approaching rapidly behind you. As you glance into your
mirror, you see the car slow to your speed directly behind
you, and a dash mounted red or blue light begins flashing
through the car's windshield.
In this example, you immediately pull onto the shoulder
of the highway and stop. You're looking through your
side view mirror as you watch the driver exit his car. As
the man begins walking toward you, you notice that the
man is not wearing any type of uniform. Your next
action is simple. You put your car in drive and drive off.
When you check your rear view mirror, and you see tail
lights instead of headlights, you'll know you've done the
right thing. Same example. This time, the driver of the
car turns off his headlights and flashing light, before he
exits his car. This is a real bad sign...don't wait for him
to even get out of his car. Just drive off.
Okay, let's say that you drive away, or you decide to not
immediately stop for some other reason. The unmarked
car continues to follow and signal with the emergency
light(s) or even a siren. You should always remember
that you could be issued a citation for not stopping or
even arrested for attempting to elude a police officer.
The eluding part, however, will not apply as long as you
do not speed, turn off your lights or travel a circuitous
route. Just travel in a straight line to an area where
you'd feel more comfortable stopping.
If the area where you intend to stop is not that far away,
there shouldn't be any problem with your explanation to a
police officer. However, let's say you're on a really dark
stretch of highway, and the closest, well lit, public area is
several miles ahead. If you have a cell phone, you could
call 911 and describe your circumstance. The 911
operator should be able to pretty rapidly verify that it is a
police officer behind you. If that verification is made,
you should immediately pull over.
It's not likely that a police impersonator would follow you
for any distance. The longer he pursues you, he's simply
going to get unwanted attention from other motorists.
His biggest concern will be that he will attract the
attention of a real police officer. So...if you look in your
mirror only to see your pursuer going in another
direction, you've again done the right thing.
This time...you're taking your unmarked visitor on the
prolonged tour, and the unmarked car stays with you.
You'll likely find out pretty quickly that it's a real police
officer behind you when you observe another vehicle
approaching from behind, or in front of you, with
emergency lights flashing. Depending upon the area
and I was signaled to stop by an unmarked police car, I
think I might have some concerns beside the possibility
of receiving a traffic citation. I know that many woman
do, because I've heard women voice their concerns
regarding safety when it's not immediately obvious that
the signaling car is a police car.
While the probability of you being stopped by a harmless
"wanna be cop", or someone much worse, is not that
great, your concern is still valid. Your personal safety
should always be your paramount concern. If the time
ever comes when you're signaled to stop by an unmarked
police car, and your instincts tell you something isn't
right, there are actions you can take short of
immediately stopping.
Let's look at some examples. You're driving on a remote
stretch of highway when you notice a set of headlights
approaching rapidly behind you. As you glance into your
mirror, you see the car slow to your speed directly behind
you, and a dash mounted red or blue light begins flashing
through the car's windshield.
In this example, you immediately pull onto the shoulder
of the highway and stop. You're looking through your
side view mirror as you watch the driver exit his car. As
the man begins walking toward you, you notice that the
man is not wearing any type of uniform. Your next
action is simple. You put your car in drive and drive off.
When you check your rear view mirror, and you see tail
lights instead of headlights, you'll know you've done the
right thing. Same example. This time, the driver of the
car turns off his headlights and flashing light, before he
exits his car. This is a real bad sign...don't wait for him
to even get out of his car. Just drive off.
Okay, let's say that you drive away, or you decide to not
immediately stop for some other reason. The unmarked
car continues to follow and signal with the emergency
light(s) or even a siren. You should always remember
that you could be issued a citation for not stopping or
even arrested for attempting to elude a police officer.
The eluding part, however, will not apply as long as you
do not speed, turn off your lights or travel a circuitous
route. Just travel in a straight line to an area where
you'd feel more comfortable stopping.
If the area where you intend to stop is not that far away,
there shouldn't be any problem with your explanation to a
police officer. However, let's say you're on a really dark
stretch of highway, and the closest, well lit, public area is
several miles ahead. If you have a cell phone, you could
call 911 and describe your circumstance. The 911
operator should be able to pretty rapidly verify that it is a
police officer behind you. If that verification is made,
you should immediately pull over.
It's not likely that a police impersonator would follow you
for any distance. The longer he pursues you, he's simply
going to get unwanted attention from other motorists.
His biggest concern will be that he will attract the
attention of a real police officer. So...if you look in your
mirror only to see your pursuer going in another
direction, you've again done the right thing.
This time...you're taking your unmarked visitor on the
prolonged tour, and the unmarked car stays with you.
You'll likely find out pretty quickly that it's a real police
officer behind you when you observe another vehicle
approaching from behind, or in front of you, with
emergency lights flashing. Depending upon the area
you're in, you might see more than one. Obviously, it's now time to pull over. Once you're stopped, turn on your
interior light, lower your driver's door window, place both your hands on top of your steering wheel, and wait for
the police officer's commands. Listen very closely and follow any command given exactly and without hesitation.
Remember...your failure to stop has given the police officer cause for concern. You'll have ample opportunity to
explain your actions once the police officer has satisfied all of his or her safety concerns.
interior light, lower your driver's door window, place both your hands on top of your steering wheel, and wait for
the police officer's commands. Listen very closely and follow any command given exactly and without hesitation.
Remember...your failure to stop has given the police officer cause for concern. You'll have ample opportunity to
explain your actions once the police officer has satisfied all of his or her safety concerns.
| Clothes Do Not Always Make the Man |
Some police impersonators will go to great lengths to
look like a police officer. They'll do their best to
replicate uniforms as similar as possible to the police
jurisdictions in which they're operating.
look like a police officer. They'll do their best to
replicate uniforms as similar as possible to the police
jurisdictions in which they're operating.
A Maryland man was having success with his
Maryland State Trooper fantasy; until, he
graduated from stopping four wheeled
vehicles to eighteen wheelers. The truck
driver, who'd had his share of experience
interacting with Troopers, immediately
recognized the obvious. After the trucker
defended himself with the phony cop's own
nightstick, he held the impersonator for the
arrival of real Maryland State Troopers.
Maryland State Trooper fantasy; until, he
graduated from stopping four wheeled
vehicles to eighteen wheelers. The truck
driver, who'd had his share of experience
interacting with Troopers, immediately
recognized the obvious. After the trucker
defended himself with the phony cop's own
nightstick, he held the impersonator for the
arrival of real Maryland State Troopers.
As a rule...to most people, a uniform is a uniform. If the impersonator makes a serious effort to replicate a
uniform, he can acquire nearly everything he needs. The one most difficult item to replicate will be the badge.
While he may be able to obtain a badge that looks similar in appearance to the real one for the particular
jurisdiction, real badges are hard to come by. Most police departments do a pretty good job of accountability when
it comes to their badges.
It's very easy for you to familiarize yourself with the badges used by your police department and those of
jurisdictions surrounding you. Nearly every police department has a website where the badge is often
prominently displayed. In some departments, the design and colors may vary depending upon rank. For
example, in Baltimore, the design of the badge is the same for everyone. The only difference is in color with the
badge being silver for police officer and sergeant. All ranks above sergeant are gold in color.
uniform, he can acquire nearly everything he needs. The one most difficult item to replicate will be the badge.
While he may be able to obtain a badge that looks similar in appearance to the real one for the particular
jurisdiction, real badges are hard to come by. Most police departments do a pretty good job of accountability when
it comes to their badges.
It's very easy for you to familiarize yourself with the badges used by your police department and those of
jurisdictions surrounding you. Nearly every police department has a website where the badge is often
prominently displayed. In some departments, the design and colors may vary depending upon rank. For
example, in Baltimore, the design of the badge is the same for everyone. The only difference is in color with the
badge being silver for police officer and sergeant. All ranks above sergeant are gold in color.
| Copyright © 2006 - 2008 - Barry M. Baker - CareerPoliceOfficer.com |
| Disclaimer |
| CareerPoliceOfficer.com is not responsible for the contents of any linked site or any link contained in a linked site, or any changes or updates to such sites. Links are provided only as a convenience, and the inclusion of any link does not imply endorsement by this site. |
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Just remember, your safety comes first. Whenever you're
signaled to stop by an unmarked car, take note of the
circumstances such as time of night and location. When
you stop, remain in your car. Once you get a good look at
the officer, you should be able to observe if anything is
amiss. If something about the uniform doesn't seem right,
assuming you're familiar with that agency's uniform,
politely ask the officer to show you his departmental
identification card. While it may be an annoying request,
it's not an unreasonable one. If he refuses, drive away. If
he's legitimate, there'll soon be a marked police car on your
tail.
I've got a thing about police officers not in uniform stopping
motorists. I never did it during my career, because I
believe it's a bad practice for what should be obvious
reasons. I've instructed by wife to drive away from a stop if
the man making the stop is not in uniform. If the man is a
police officer and a reasonable person, he should
understand. If he cites her, that's fine too. I'll simply
make my explanation for the instruction to the traffic court
judge.
signaled to stop by an unmarked car, take note of the
circumstances such as time of night and location. When
you stop, remain in your car. Once you get a good look at
the officer, you should be able to observe if anything is
amiss. If something about the uniform doesn't seem right,
assuming you're familiar with that agency's uniform,
politely ask the officer to show you his departmental
identification card. While it may be an annoying request,
it's not an unreasonable one. If he refuses, drive away. If
he's legitimate, there'll soon be a marked police car on your
tail.
I've got a thing about police officers not in uniform stopping
motorists. I never did it during my career, because I
believe it's a bad practice for what should be obvious
reasons. I've instructed by wife to drive away from a stop if
the man making the stop is not in uniform. If the man is a
police officer and a reasonable person, he should
understand. If he cites her, that's fine too. I'll simply
make my explanation for the instruction to the traffic court
judge.
professional license and expertise (whether involving medicine or home remodels), a low odometer reading on
an older used car, or the identity of an Internet communicator or credit card user.
The realness of even a police officer was an issue in the murder of James Gottlieb, a Long Island banker, who
was gunned down recently during a struggle after being pulled over in his car and stopped by a police
impersonator. In pulling over as requested, the banker acknowledged the presumed authority of the state as
expressed by the car with its siren and flashing lights behind his. But the “authority” turned out to rest on
nothing more than the deceptive appropriation of easily obtained symbols.
That familiar sinking feeling when the vehicle behind yours suddenly turns on its siren and you see its flashing
lights in your rear-view mirror is an experience known to most of us. It is a moment fraught with ambiguity and
uncertainty about what we may have done and what the officer knows, or can legally or illegally discover. We
worry about whether we will be respectfully treated with due process, and without errors or false accusations.
An additional concern that seems more common in recent years (or at least is receiving increased media
attention) is wondering whether the officer is who he or she claims to be, rather than a badge-growing clone
who has purchased official looking police paraphernalia on the internet or at a costume store and seen too
many tv cop shows. When pulled over, citizens may experience some of the same anxiety of walking into the
unknown traditionally felt by officers in pulling cars over.
Impersonation represents a kind of temporary identity theft that can hurt not only the duped, but society more
broadly. Unlike the current crime of identity theft, impersonating an agent of the state is the theft or
appropriation of a social identity. The ramifications for the social order and trust in authority are perhaps more
profound than in case of individual identity theft.
Ironically, the increased use of undercover policing in the United States since the death of J. Edgar Hoover has
likely contributed to the spread of impersonation. Real stings and mass media dramas involving the undercover
theme have accustomed citizens and perpetrators alike to the presence of non-uniformed police. This has likely
eroded the threshold for skepticism.
This can also lead to a reverse version of the "who are you really?" question for those who are part of a
genuine covert operation. Real police (undercover, plainclothes or off-duty) are occasionally perceived to be
imposters. In New York and elsewhere a number of police officers (disproportionately members of minority
groups) out of uniform have been killed or injured by fellow officers who perceived them as criminals.
Establishing police authenticity can also be an issue, given the multiplicity of specialized, non-uniformed
agencies and units (national intelligence, drug and customs, as well as state, county, and city) with low visibility
operations in the same area. For security reasons their true role may not be known to others, with results that
are often unpublicized but make for compelling stories varying between Keystone cops and tragedy.
Given incompatible or faulty communications systems, supposed impersonators may also turn out to be real.
Thus county or city police officers, unaware that their counterparts in unmarked cars have made stops, may
respond to citizen complaints about supposed police impersonators who in fact are authentic.
Occasionally “real” impersonators also make faulty assumptions. Consider a Michigan case in which a police
chief, driving home from work in his private car, was pulled over by teenagers in a black Dodge that followed
him and flashed blue and white strobe lights. Imagine their surprise. In other cases police impersonators are
arrested when uniformed officers, seeing a “police” stop in progress, pull over to help.
A variety of types of impersonation can be noted such as the serious crimes of the 1929 Chicago Valentine’s
Day Massacre, the Brinks Robbery, the 2005 Belfast $50 million bank robbery, the activities of Carl Chessman
(the California red-light bandit of the 1950s). Crimes against drug dealers by other dealers, or criminals
pretending to be police and carrying out interrogations to learn what other criminals know or are doing can be
observed, as can efforts to test the waters to see what can be gotten away with. Consider also the garden
variety teenage pranksters and police aficionados playing as authorities and individuals acting in what they
perceive as high-mindedness in carrying out vigilante justice.
There are also sizeable gray areas with respect to what constitutes impersonation with respect to categories
such as bail bondsmen, bounty hunters and private security workers.
Questions of “who are you?” become even more complicated when we consider individuals whose formal
affiliation with a police agency is genuine, but whose behavior is that of a criminal. With respect to traffic stops
women seem more likely to be victimized and are certainly much less likely to impersonate police (other than as
part of confidence schemes), than is the case for males. Consider cases of “driving while female” involving
alleged harassment and coerced sex on the part of rogue male police. Beyond facing the trappings of official
legal and lethal power, the women pulled over may be additionally vulnerable as a result of traffic or other
offenses.
Illegal immigrants, fearing deportation, also seem more likely to be victimized. As with criminals as victims, they
are less likely to report the incident. Large urban areas are more likely settings than smaller towns and rural
areas.
Given the factors that seem conducive to impersonation and getting away with it, a good question is, why isn’t
there much more? On the other hand we don’t have a clear idea of how much there is. There are no national
statistics on the behavior and it is likely among the most unreported of violations, partly because those subject
to impersonators may not realize it, may feel no great harm is done (e.g., a common pattern is simply being
warned by the imposter). Drug dealers may not want to volunteer information about their activities to police.
Beyond the embarrassment of being taken in, that is also the case for victims of confidence schemes. There
may also be no victim in the conventional sense, as when imposters interview those at a crime scene or private
police act as if they had the authority of public police in directing citizen behavior.
The causes and consequences of the traditional forms of impersonation vary significantly. For many the ploy is
strategic offering a means to gain access --whether for theft, assault or information, or to hide identity and/or to
cast aspersions on authorities (e.g., in guerilla and civil war contexts opponents wearing the uniforms of their
enemies). For some (often on the fringe of the criminal justice world) impersonation can involve some deep
psychological need to assert authority, while for others it can be just a form of play. Yet all represent a tiny
strand in a much broader tapestry of authenticity, identity, trust and deception in the modern world.
Police impersonation, like many other forms of deception is encouraged by the characteristics of contemporary
American life. We live in a society where face-to-face interaction has been vastly augmented by distance-
mediated interaction. This mass society is made up mostly of strangers where in place of reputation, we must
rely on signs (uniforms, badges, identification cards, licenses easily obtained by almost anyone on the Internet
or through catalogs) to verify someone's authenticity. We know that security screens such as passwords and
keys can be mimicked. The symbols can be genuine (e.g., a stolen police badge or car) even as their
possessor is not entitled to use them.
Traditionally the market in police goods was less developed and accessible and purchasers relied on local
sources. This may have introduced a degree of accountability.
We also live in a society that encourages role-playing, make-overs and becoming who you want to be
(regardless of whether this is who you are entitled to be).
A hypotheses to explore is that police impersonation is more common in countries with an Anglo police tradition
in which the line between citizens and the state was not as sharply drawn as on the Continent. Sir Robert Peele,
the founder of the modern British police, argued for a democratic police who were to be local. In his conception
all citizens had a responsibility to help maintain order. Traditions of private police are also more strongly
developed in countries with an Anglo tradition.
The vast expansion of private police with uniforms and weapons seen in recent decades is also conducive to
impersonation, whether to better perform the private police role or because of the temptation to assert authority
offered by the trappings of the role.
The encounter with a presumed police officer on the street occurs against the same backdrop of the need for
verification of the identity/qualifications of a doctor or a roof repairperson. But unlike in those situations, we
don't have the luxury of time to ask a friend's recommendation, to see examples of their work or to check with
the Better Business Bureau or a state agency to see if the person is appropriately licensed and/or bonded.
Because of the need for immediate action, some social situations will always be messier than others with
respect to the documentation of identity. Law enforcement is one of them.
The historically evolved, broad societal characteristics and the nature of police stop situations necessitating
split second decisions limit the impact any policy can have. However some small steps might lessen
impersonation problems. Police advise those pulled over who are in doubt to carefully inspect police ids, when
available to use a cell phone to call 911 for verification of an officer's identity or request a uniformed officer, or
to drive slowly with blinkers on to a well-lit public area or police station. Penalties beyond the moderate
misdemeanor level characterizing many local jurisdictions might make a modest difference. Policies requiring
harder-to-replicate lights in the front grill of police cars, using only marked police vehicles for traffic stops and
mandating that a uniformed officer always be present, or summoned, when a routine traffic stop occurs also
seem wise.
However, under varying circumstances, police will always need either to reveal or conceal their identification
and citizens need to be both cooperative and skeptical of authority. The negotiation of these tensions in a
democratic society is and ought to be eternally problematic.
A related paper, Fraudulent Identity and Biography, is available on Gary's site.
Website for Gary T. Marx
an older used car, or the identity of an Internet communicator or credit card user.
The realness of even a police officer was an issue in the murder of James Gottlieb, a Long Island banker, who
was gunned down recently during a struggle after being pulled over in his car and stopped by a police
impersonator. In pulling over as requested, the banker acknowledged the presumed authority of the state as
expressed by the car with its siren and flashing lights behind his. But the “authority” turned out to rest on
nothing more than the deceptive appropriation of easily obtained symbols.
That familiar sinking feeling when the vehicle behind yours suddenly turns on its siren and you see its flashing
lights in your rear-view mirror is an experience known to most of us. It is a moment fraught with ambiguity and
uncertainty about what we may have done and what the officer knows, or can legally or illegally discover. We
worry about whether we will be respectfully treated with due process, and without errors or false accusations.
An additional concern that seems more common in recent years (or at least is receiving increased media
attention) is wondering whether the officer is who he or she claims to be, rather than a badge-growing clone
who has purchased official looking police paraphernalia on the internet or at a costume store and seen too
many tv cop shows. When pulled over, citizens may experience some of the same anxiety of walking into the
unknown traditionally felt by officers in pulling cars over.
Impersonation represents a kind of temporary identity theft that can hurt not only the duped, but society more
broadly. Unlike the current crime of identity theft, impersonating an agent of the state is the theft or
appropriation of a social identity. The ramifications for the social order and trust in authority are perhaps more
profound than in case of individual identity theft.
Ironically, the increased use of undercover policing in the United States since the death of J. Edgar Hoover has
likely contributed to the spread of impersonation. Real stings and mass media dramas involving the undercover
theme have accustomed citizens and perpetrators alike to the presence of non-uniformed police. This has likely
eroded the threshold for skepticism.
This can also lead to a reverse version of the "who are you really?" question for those who are part of a
genuine covert operation. Real police (undercover, plainclothes or off-duty) are occasionally perceived to be
imposters. In New York and elsewhere a number of police officers (disproportionately members of minority
groups) out of uniform have been killed or injured by fellow officers who perceived them as criminals.
Establishing police authenticity can also be an issue, given the multiplicity of specialized, non-uniformed
agencies and units (national intelligence, drug and customs, as well as state, county, and city) with low visibility
operations in the same area. For security reasons their true role may not be known to others, with results that
are often unpublicized but make for compelling stories varying between Keystone cops and tragedy.
Given incompatible or faulty communications systems, supposed impersonators may also turn out to be real.
Thus county or city police officers, unaware that their counterparts in unmarked cars have made stops, may
respond to citizen complaints about supposed police impersonators who in fact are authentic.
Occasionally “real” impersonators also make faulty assumptions. Consider a Michigan case in which a police
chief, driving home from work in his private car, was pulled over by teenagers in a black Dodge that followed
him and flashed blue and white strobe lights. Imagine their surprise. In other cases police impersonators are
arrested when uniformed officers, seeing a “police” stop in progress, pull over to help.
A variety of types of impersonation can be noted such as the serious crimes of the 1929 Chicago Valentine’s
Day Massacre, the Brinks Robbery, the 2005 Belfast $50 million bank robbery, the activities of Carl Chessman
(the California red-light bandit of the 1950s). Crimes against drug dealers by other dealers, or criminals
pretending to be police and carrying out interrogations to learn what other criminals know or are doing can be
observed, as can efforts to test the waters to see what can be gotten away with. Consider also the garden
variety teenage pranksters and police aficionados playing as authorities and individuals acting in what they
perceive as high-mindedness in carrying out vigilante justice.
There are also sizeable gray areas with respect to what constitutes impersonation with respect to categories
such as bail bondsmen, bounty hunters and private security workers.
Questions of “who are you?” become even more complicated when we consider individuals whose formal
affiliation with a police agency is genuine, but whose behavior is that of a criminal. With respect to traffic stops
women seem more likely to be victimized and are certainly much less likely to impersonate police (other than as
part of confidence schemes), than is the case for males. Consider cases of “driving while female” involving
alleged harassment and coerced sex on the part of rogue male police. Beyond facing the trappings of official
legal and lethal power, the women pulled over may be additionally vulnerable as a result of traffic or other
offenses.
Illegal immigrants, fearing deportation, also seem more likely to be victimized. As with criminals as victims, they
are less likely to report the incident. Large urban areas are more likely settings than smaller towns and rural
areas.
Given the factors that seem conducive to impersonation and getting away with it, a good question is, why isn’t
there much more? On the other hand we don’t have a clear idea of how much there is. There are no national
statistics on the behavior and it is likely among the most unreported of violations, partly because those subject
to impersonators may not realize it, may feel no great harm is done (e.g., a common pattern is simply being
warned by the imposter). Drug dealers may not want to volunteer information about their activities to police.
Beyond the embarrassment of being taken in, that is also the case for victims of confidence schemes. There
may also be no victim in the conventional sense, as when imposters interview those at a crime scene or private
police act as if they had the authority of public police in directing citizen behavior.
The causes and consequences of the traditional forms of impersonation vary significantly. For many the ploy is
strategic offering a means to gain access --whether for theft, assault or information, or to hide identity and/or to
cast aspersions on authorities (e.g., in guerilla and civil war contexts opponents wearing the uniforms of their
enemies). For some (often on the fringe of the criminal justice world) impersonation can involve some deep
psychological need to assert authority, while for others it can be just a form of play. Yet all represent a tiny
strand in a much broader tapestry of authenticity, identity, trust and deception in the modern world.
Police impersonation, like many other forms of deception is encouraged by the characteristics of contemporary
American life. We live in a society where face-to-face interaction has been vastly augmented by distance-
mediated interaction. This mass society is made up mostly of strangers where in place of reputation, we must
rely on signs (uniforms, badges, identification cards, licenses easily obtained by almost anyone on the Internet
or through catalogs) to verify someone's authenticity. We know that security screens such as passwords and
keys can be mimicked. The symbols can be genuine (e.g., a stolen police badge or car) even as their
possessor is not entitled to use them.
Traditionally the market in police goods was less developed and accessible and purchasers relied on local
sources. This may have introduced a degree of accountability.
We also live in a society that encourages role-playing, make-overs and becoming who you want to be
(regardless of whether this is who you are entitled to be).
A hypotheses to explore is that police impersonation is more common in countries with an Anglo police tradition
in which the line between citizens and the state was not as sharply drawn as on the Continent. Sir Robert Peele,
the founder of the modern British police, argued for a democratic police who were to be local. In his conception
all citizens had a responsibility to help maintain order. Traditions of private police are also more strongly
developed in countries with an Anglo tradition.
The vast expansion of private police with uniforms and weapons seen in recent decades is also conducive to
impersonation, whether to better perform the private police role or because of the temptation to assert authority
offered by the trappings of the role.
The encounter with a presumed police officer on the street occurs against the same backdrop of the need for
verification of the identity/qualifications of a doctor or a roof repairperson. But unlike in those situations, we
don't have the luxury of time to ask a friend's recommendation, to see examples of their work or to check with
the Better Business Bureau or a state agency to see if the person is appropriately licensed and/or bonded.
Because of the need for immediate action, some social situations will always be messier than others with
respect to the documentation of identity. Law enforcement is one of them.
The historically evolved, broad societal characteristics and the nature of police stop situations necessitating
split second decisions limit the impact any policy can have. However some small steps might lessen
impersonation problems. Police advise those pulled over who are in doubt to carefully inspect police ids, when
available to use a cell phone to call 911 for verification of an officer's identity or request a uniformed officer, or
to drive slowly with blinkers on to a well-lit public area or police station. Penalties beyond the moderate
misdemeanor level characterizing many local jurisdictions might make a modest difference. Policies requiring
harder-to-replicate lights in the front grill of police cars, using only marked police vehicles for traffic stops and
mandating that a uniformed officer always be present, or summoned, when a routine traffic stop occurs also
seem wise.
However, under varying circumstances, police will always need either to reveal or conceal their identification
and citizens need to be both cooperative and skeptical of authority. The negotiation of these tensions in a
democratic society is and ought to be eternally problematic.
A related paper, Fraudulent Identity and Biography, is available on Gary's site.
Website for Gary T. Marx
| Are You for Real? Police and Other Impersonators |
January 16, 2005
In our fantasy play my 4-year-old grandson
often asks me, "Are you for real?" His inquiry
is more profound than he perhaps realizes.
As daily events remind us, his question
touches many facets of contemporary
American society in which often, as Gilbert
and Sullivan wrote, "things are seldom what
they seem."
Consider, for example, how prudent it is to
be initially skeptical, or at least to question,
news media accounts, drug company claims,
age and gender appearances, pledges of
fidelity and marital status, proof of
In our fantasy play my 4-year-old grandson
often asks me, "Are you for real?" His inquiry
is more profound than he perhaps realizes.
As daily events remind us, his question
touches many facets of contemporary
American society in which often, as Gilbert
and Sullivan wrote, "things are seldom what
they seem."
Consider, for example, how prudent it is to
be initially skeptical, or at least to question,
news media accounts, drug company claims,
age and gender appearances, pledges of
fidelity and marital status, proof of
| Reprinted with Permission |
Providing a rich picture of past
and present undercover work,
and drawing on unpublished
documents and interviews with
the FBI and local police, this
penetrating study examines the
variety of undercover operations
and the ethical issues and
empirical assumptions raised
when the state officially
sanctions deception and trickery
and allows its agents to
participate in crime.
and present undercover work,
and drawing on unpublished
documents and interviews with
the FBI and local police, this
penetrating study examines the
variety of undercover operations
and the ethical issues and
empirical assumptions raised
when the state officially
sanctions deception and trickery
and allows its agents to
participate in crime.
Gary T. Marx is professor emeritus of sociology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and
author of "Undercover: Police Surveillance in America."
author of "Undercover: Police Surveillance in America."
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